This page describes the various phases of the writing process.

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Discovery Phase

The discovery phase begins with the decision to want to write and submit a text (at any point in time). This can be the attendance of a seminar, in which the examination performance is a term paper, or the decision to complete the studies and to tackle the thesis, or the intention to want to do a doctorate. The decision marks the beginning, because at this moment the intellectual debate of a project begins, of which the result is a text.

The intellectual debate encompasses various areas and can be outlined with the following questions:

• What do I want to write about? In other words, determine the topic.
• What aspect do I want to investigate? In other words, develop the question.
• In which ways can I or do I want to deal with the topic and the question? In other words, determine the method.

These questions usually cannot be answered at the beginning of the process. Their elaboration is part of the working process. This means that scientific work involves building up knowledge about the subject matter, which must then be objectified. This combination of knowledge generation and knowledge representation characterizes scientific writing and makes it so difficult. It is easier to write something well thought out than something that is still unclear to oneself.

In the discovery phase,  it is necessary to think broadly in order to grasp the topic and locate it in the discourse. Contrarily, there is a need to hone in on the focus to develop a workable question. Dealing with these opposing currents is the challenge. The type of writer is influential here, as architects like to commit too quickly, while adventurers resist committing, squirrels collect a lot but don't want to develop a plan, and decathletes spend a lot of time trying different paths.

Strategies for dealing with challenges

Examine:

• What helps me frame my ideas in a way that makes them tangible to me?
• What is the difference between a topic and a question?
• How can I develop a research question?

You may use anything that helps you to cope with the demanding intellectual work. This includes using all the linguistic resources you have. Allow yourself to think in all types of language. The point of the finding phase is not to formulate in the target language of the text. You will be much faster if you feel comfortable thinking than if you build up additional requirements here. In the end, it will benefit the text more.

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Data collection and analysis phase

When text production involves empirical work, time constraints often require decisions to be made early in the process about the data collection method and the research design. It may be necessary to make these decisions before one is even convinced of the goal of the work or before the research question has been precisely defined. The method of data collection is only one component. In addition, there are the processes that are necessary to make the data accessible to an evaluation, and of course the evaluation itself. These processes are an important factor for time planning that is often underestimated.

Strategies for dealing with the challenges

Examine:

• What knowledge do I have for the implementation of the method I prefer?

• How do I get the data I need? What channels are available to me? Qualitative studies often require people/institutions to talk to. Quantitative surveys need to be able to be disseminated/distributed.

• Am I able to prepare the data for analysis? For example, interview data usually needs to be transcribed to make it available for analysis.

• What software do I need to process my data? Am I familiar with these tools?

If possible, clarify these questions before you sign up for your thesis, for example. In writing consulting, we repeatedly deal with students who underestimate this phase in terms of its complexity and the time required.

Counseling

The Methodology Center at Leuphana University offers students a wide range of opportunities to expand their methodological expertise. This also includes an individual counseling offer.

Text Production Phase

If the text is a house, then the individual words are building blocks of the house. The more building blocks have been processed, the easier it is to recognize the house. A textual 'house' can be created in many ways: There are writers who first need a plan of what the house should look like. Then they look for the necessary building blocks and process them. Other writers look at what building blocks are available and how they can be put them together. Lastly, there are those who mix different processes. Knowing which type of writer you can be helpful in identifying your individual challenges.

The formulating phase can be broken down into three broad sub-phases, each with its own challenges.

• Beginning: start writing

• Middle: staying in the flow

• End: finalize and let go of one's text

Strategies for dealing with the challenges

The beginning, middle, and end in text formulation involve different challenges that must be overcome.

Overcoming Procrastination

1. Give yourself an early deadline - Setting a closer deadline can help create the illusion of urgency. 
2. Work in a public space - working around other focused people will help you focus. We are also less likely to waste time when others can see what we are doing. 
3. Plan out small, incremental steps - give your self a checklist of smaller tasks. This way, you can accomplish something quickly and be proud of your effort. 
4. Create an Outline - organize all of your information and the structure of your arguments before you start the writing process. 
5. Start writing in the middle of your paper - start by writing down any idea or argument that is most appealing to you. 
6. Ask a friend to keep you accountable - Decide on a date for your first draft, second draft, and final draft. Tell these  dates to a friend as ask that friend to keep you accountable. 

The Middle: Overcoming Writing Challenges

1. Distracted? - Find a more quiet location to work. Put your phone in another room. 
2. Doubting your abilities? - Talk to a friend you can help you see your best skills
3. Laking Motivation? - Go for a walk outside. Tell a friend what you think is most exciting about your project. Spend five minutes imagining what it will feel like when this project is finished.
4. Tired? - Take a nap. Sleep is extremely important. You will be able to work much better once you've have slept well. Try reducing your caffeine consumption as caffeine reduces the quality of sleep. 
5. Time Management - Set goals for each phase of your writing project and ask a friend of a tutor at the writing center to help you be accountable. 

The End: How to know if your paper is ready to submit?

1. Treat yourself like an athlete engaged in an endurance event - give yourself exercises (write for 30 minutes, reread three pages that you've already written) and then take a break. 
2. Motivate yourself in ways that work for you
3. Employ your inner drill sergeant - Tell yourself, "I am going to finish this project today. No excuses." 
4. Review your professor's requirements and make sure you have addressed each of them. 
5. Ask a friend to read your work and give suggestions. 
6. Leave your writing project for two days and then come back to it - How do you feel about your writing after taking a break? 
7. Do a final grammar and spelling check - use AI programs, such as Grammarly if you need help. 

Counseling

If, at any time, you think you need help, feel free to set up an appointment with a writing tutor through our SZMT system. 

Recommendation: Writing Guide

Kruse, Otto (2007): Keine Angst vor dem leeren Blatt ohne Schreibblockaden durchs Studium. Frankfurt, M; New York, NY: Campus-Verl.

Sources

Flower, Linda S./ Hayes, John R. (1980): The Dynamics of Composing. Making Plans and Juggling Constraints. In: Gregg, Lee W./ Steinberg, Erwin R. (eds.): Cognitive Processes in Writing. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum, 31-50

Knorr, Dagmar (2016): Modell „Phasen und Handlungen akademischer Textproduktion“. Eine Visualisierung zur Beschreibung von Textproduktionsprojekten. In: Ballweg, Sandra (Hrsg.): Schreibzentrumsarbeit: Theorie, Empirie, Praxis. Frankfurt/Main u. a.: Lang [Wissen – Kompetenz – Text; 11], 251–273

Revision Phase

As soon as the first word is written, you can read and edit it. In the digital age, editing is both a blessing and a curse, because letters, words and texts are fluid and fleeting as long as they are available electronically.

Changes can be made quickly and easily. That is an advantage. Because the document always looks "clean". (If you activate the "Track changes" option, you can make your own editing traces partially visible). You can edit the raw version of your text.

Changes can be made quickly and easily. This is a disadvantage because a text is never "finished". There is always the possibility of tweaking it, adding to it, smoothing it out, changing it.  It therefore takes courage (or reaching the deadline) to consider a text as "finished" and "ready for submission". 

The role of feedback in the revision phase

Anyone who works long and hard on a text project lacks distance from it. This is completely normal because we "immerse" ourselves in the text work. The problem with this is that we are then often no longer able to take an outside perspective in order to test the effect on readers. This is why it is helpful - especially for term papers - to show the text to other people and get feedback. You can ask your reader to provide your feedback on specific topics, such as argumentation or flow. 

If you want feedback on the argumentation of a text, you should be prepared to make structural changes. This is usually time-consuming and often requires further thought and time. Feedback on argumentation is therefore helpful in situations where text is already available but you still have time (and the energy) to make changes.

Asking for feedback on clarity can be divided into two types of clarity. Experienced feedback providers distinguish between two forms of clarity: clarity at the local level usually means the word, sentence or paragraph level. You can usually edit such comments relatively quickly and easily. However, clarity can also refer to the text as a while. In this case, you will receive feedback, which usually results in more time-consuming editing.

The desire for linguistic feedback, i.e. proofreading spelling and punctuation, is understandable and sensible. To avoid putting unnecessary strain on your feedback providers, you should correct your text yourself as much as possible. Here are a few tips:

How your word processor can support you:

• Select the correct language setting for the spelling/grammar checker in your word processor. You can set your own language settings for individual paragraphs or words. (You can find instructions for this on the Internet.
• Train your word processor's dictionary. Technical terms are often not listed. Enter them (if they are spelled correctly) into the dictionary to reduce the number of words marked as "incorrect".
• If necessary, also use checking programs such as Duden-Mentor or Grammarly.

To self-correct your text, create distance from it:

• A temporal distance (at least 24 hours) reduces the emotional attitude towards the text. You create distance and can see your text with different eyes.
• Give your text a different look by reformatting it, i.e. changing the font and/or font size. 
• Print your paper
• Read your text aloud. 

Completion Phase

The completion phase should be scheduled in the time schedule. For a thesis that needs to be bound, at least 3 days should be planned, ideally a week. This is because the completion phase is exclusively dedicated to the final touches and proofreading.

Checklist

1) General

• Are all formalities fulfilled?
• Is the cover sheet formatted? Are all necessary details included (name, matriculation number, address, reviewer/seminar leader, title of the paper, seminar if applicable)?
• Are all citations in the text accompanied by page numbers?
• Are all necessary indexes present? Table of contents and bibliography are obligatory. In many cases, a list of figures and abbreviations is also required. Tip: Use the functions of writing software to automatically create these lists.
• Is the text checked for correct spelling and punctuation? The use of spelling and grammar checkers is mandatory. However, since these systems do not detect everything, it is helpful to have a trusted person proofread the text again. Note: The Writing Center does NOT provide this service.
• Are all headings, quotes, etc. formatted consistently? Tip: Use paragraph formatting.

2) Consistency checks

Tip: Consistency checks are made much easier by working with a reference management program!

• Is the bibliography complete? Check whether all references in the text are also in the bibliography and whether only the information referenced in the text is also in the bibliography.
• Are the sources in the text all structured according to the same scheme? For example, all page references with "p." or without, but not once like this and once like that?
• Do the references in the bibliography all follow the same convention?

 Attention! There is not ONE correct form. Some institutes specify how the bibliography must be structured, others limit themselves to the specification that the bibliography should be "consistent". If there are guidelines, you should follow them. If not, it is sufficient to decide on a convention and to follow its principles consistently. If you use a reference management program, you can choose between different output styles. The references in the text are then automatically output according to the selection. 

3) Finetuning

• Scan your document for duplicate gaps and replace them with a single one.
• In the course of text production, many writers develop a preference for certain words or phrases that are not technical words. These are often filler words that do not contribute to the argument (e.g., "also"). If you encounter a word or phrase several times on a page in your text, you can check whether they can be replaced by other words/phrases or deleted. The latter is often possible when using filler words without changing the line of argument. This revision step contributes a lot to how smoothly your text reads. Remember: you are writing for a reader.

Examination Phase

The examination phase is a time of waiting. There is nothing more you can do. The longer the phase lasts, the greater the uncertainty and doubt can become. There is only one option here: endure. If you have the opportunity, do yourself a favor and don't look at your text again during this time. Due to the distance in time, you will notice things that you might have wanted to do differently...

If your text is one that needs to be defended, use this time to prepare your presentation. 

Tip: The defense is called a defense because that's what it's all about. You will be tested on whether you stand by your text. Expect questions that will make you feel insecure. Your approach may be questioned or an alternative presentation of your results may be suggested. Then explain why your approach was good and why you arrived at your results in the way you did. You can also discuss what future research - based on your findings - could achieve. 

Publication Phase

If you are writing your PHD thesis are trying to publish your research, your writing process is not completely over until your results have been published and made publicly available.

Tips

The Medien- und Informationszentrum supports you in choosing literature management programs and offers consultation hours. You can attend short introductions to Citavi, Mendeley and Zotero and/or use self-study materials.

Meurer, Peter, & Schluchter, Manfred. (2017). Wissenschaftliches Arbeiten mit Citavi 6. Hinweise zum Schreiben wissenschaftlicher Arbeiten mit der Software »Citavi.