This page describes the various phases of the writing process.

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Discovery Phase

The discovery phase begins with the decision to want to write and submit a text (at any point in time). This can be the attendance of a seminar, in which the examination performance is a term paper, or the decision to complete the studies and to tackle the thesis, or the intention to want to do a doctorate. The decision marks the beginning, because at this moment the intellectual debate of a project begins, of which the result is a text.

The intellectual debate encompasses various areas and can be outlined with the following questions:

• What do I want to write about? In other words, determine the topic.
• What aspect do I want to investigate? In other words, develop the question.
• In which ways can I or do I want to deal with the topic and the question? In other words, determine the method.

These questions usually cannot be answered at the beginning of the process. Their elaboration is part of the working process. This means that scientific work involves building up knowledge about the subject matter, which must then be objectified. This combination of knowledge generation and knowledge representation characterizes scientific writing and makes it so difficult. It is easier to write something well thought out than something that is still unclear to oneself.

In the discovery phase,  it is necessary to think broadly in order to grasp the topic and locate it in the discourse. Contrarily, there is a need to hone in on the focus to develop a workable question. Dealing with these opposing currents is the challenge. The type of writer is influential here, as architects like to commit too quickly, while adventurers resist committing, squirrels collect a lot but don't want to develop a plan, and decathletes spend a lot of time trying different paths.

Strategies for dealing with challenges

Examine:

• What helps me frame my ideas in a way that makes them tangible to me?
• What is the difference between a topic and a question?
• How can I develop a research question?

You may use anything that helps you to cope with the demanding intellectual work. This includes using all the linguistic resources you have. Allow yourself to think in all types of language. The point of the finding phase is not to formulate in the target language of the text. You will be much faster if you feel comfortable thinking than if you build up additional requirements here. In the end, it will benefit the text more.

Developing a Research Question

There is no universal set of criteria for a good research question. Different disciplines have different priorities and requirements. A good research question for a history paper will differ from a good research question for a biology paper. In general, however, a good research question should be:

• Clear and focused. In other words, the question should clearly state what the writer needs to do.
• Not too broad and not too narrow. The question should have an appropriate scope. If the question is too broad it will not be possible to answer it thoroughly within the word limit. If it is too narrow you will not have enough to write about and you will struggle to develop a strong argument (see the activity below for examples).
• Not too easy to answer. For example, the question should require more than a simple yes or no answer.
• Not too difficult to answer. You must be able to answer the question thoroughly within the given timeframe and word limit.
• Researchable. You must have access to a suitable amount of quality research materials, such as academic books and refereed journal articles.
• Analytical rather than descriptive. In other words, your research question should allow you to produce an analysis of an issue or problem rather than a simple description of it (more on this below).

1. Determine the requirements

Before you can construct a good research question you will need to determine the requirements of your assignment.

What is the purpose of this assignment? Is it to test a proposition? Is it to evaluate a set of data? Is it to state and defend an argument? Check the assignment instructions and discuss the purpose with your tutor or lecturer.

Determining the purpose will help you to choose the most appropriate topic and word your question in the most useful way.

2. Choose a topic

Have you been given a list of topics to choose from or can you choose your own? Check the assignment instructions and if you are still in doubt discuss the requirements with your tutor or lecturer.

The best approach is to choose a topic that you are interested in. If you are interested in your topic you are more likely to invest more time, effort, and creativity into your research and writing. The greater your interest, the more likely it is that you will produce an assignment that is interesting to read.

3. Conduct preliminary research

Before you write your question it is advisable to read a small number of relevant academic sources. Limit your reading to recently published material and perhaps one or two influential works on the topic. The goal here is to familiarise yourself with the key debates in academic writing on the topic.

Reading in order to develop a research question is different from reading in order to answer it. Focus on the main ideas and arguments (these are usually found in the introduction and the conclusion). You don’t need to read every word or take down extensive notes at this stage, as you will probably come back to the text at a later date.

4. Narrow down your topic

Having conducted some preliminary research you should now be in a position to narrow down your topic.

In most cases you will need to narrow down your focus to a specific issue or debate within the broader topic. This is because it is much more effective to cover a single issue or dimension of a topic in depth than to skim the surface of several.

There are several ways that you might go about narrowing down your topic:

• Think about the subtopics, specific issues, and key debates that exist within the broader topic.
• Think about the value of focusing on a particular period of time, a particular geographical location, a particular organisation, or a particular group of people.
• Think about what you want to say in your assignment. What are the key points and arguments that you want to get across? Which subtopic, timeframe or other limitation would allow you to make these points in the most effective way?

5. Write your question

Now that you have narrowed down your topic you can turn your attention to the wording of your research question.

As mentioned previously, the research question must outline a clear task that you will need to complete.

Remember that you will need to keep the purpose of your assignment in mind when thinking about the wording of your question and that the purpose will differ from discipline to discipline (see 1: Determine the Requirements).

In general, however, a good research question requires you to analyse an issue or problem. How and why questions are therefore more useful than what or describe questions. Other useful words that you might use are critique, argue, examine and evaluate.

Data collection and analysis phase

When working on a research project, at some point, you will need to choose a methodology. This applies to both empirical (conducting original experiments yourself) and theoretical (analyzing the work of others) work. Therefore, you must consider which methodological approach you will take: you must devide which method is most suited to answering your question. Methods are the "tools." Note: Because methodological questions are very much a technical matter and fall under the responsibility of the supervisors, we at the Writing Center can only provide suggestions - and only if the writing consultants themselves have the relevant experience.

  You should always ask for your supervisor's advice when deciding on a methodology.

For advice on the design of empirical work, you can also contact the Leuphana Methods Center. A look at the Methods Center's method toolbox gives an overview of qualitative and quantitative research. We would like to refer students of sustainability science to Henrik von Wehrden's Methods Wiki. This also contains tips on organizing the writing process of empirical work (INSERT LINK TO WIKI HERE).

Writing teachers and researchers suggest making a decision about your methods early on in the writing process. This includes deciding on your method, approach, specific experimental design, etc.  It may be necessary to make these decisions before one is even convinced of the goal of the work or before the research question has been precisely defined. The method of data collection is only one component. In addition, there are the processes that are necessary to make the data accessible to an evaluation, and of course the evaluation itself. These processes are an important factor for time planning that is often underestimated.

But even if you are "only" writing a theoretical paper based on specialist literature, you are using data in a certain way. These are texts that you read, interpret, compile and prepare the content in such a way that you can use them for your argument. This is why even in purely theoretical papers you are usually required to describe how you proceed, on what basis of literature you are arguing, etc.

Challenges and Strategies

Check:

• What knowledge do I have for the implementation of the method I prefer?

• How do I get the data I need? What channels are available to me? Qualitative studies often require people/institutions to talk to. Quantitative surveys need to be able to be disseminated/distributed.

• Am I able to prepare the data for analysis? For example, interview data usually needs to be transcribed to make it available for analysis.

• What software do I need to process my data? Am I familiar with these tools?

If possible, clarify these questions before you sign up for your thesis, for example. In writing consulting, we repeatedly deal with students who underestimate this phase in terms of its complexity and the time required.

Counseling

The Methodology Center at Leuphana University offers students a wide range of opportunities to expand their methodological expertise. This also includes an individual counseling offer.

Text Production Phase

If the text is a house, then the individual words are building blocks of the house. The more building blocks have been processed, the easier it is to recognize the house. A textual 'house' can be created in many ways: There are writers who first need a plan of what the house should look like. Then they look for the necessary building blocks and process them. Other writers look at what building blocks are available and how they can be put them together. Lastly, there are those who mix different processes. Knowing which type of writer you can be helpful in identifying your individual challenges.

The formulating phase can be broken down into three broad sub-phases, each with its own challenges.

• Beginning: start writing

• Middle: staying in the flow

• End: finalize and let go of one's text

Challenges and Strategies

The beginning, middle, and end in text formulation involve different challenges that must be overcome.

Overcoming Procrastination

1. Give yourself an early deadline - Setting a closer deadline can help create the illusion of urgency. 
2. Work in a public space - working around other focused people will help you focus. We are also less likely to waste time when others can see what we are doing. 
3. Plan out small, incremental steps - give your self a checklist of smaller tasks. This way, you can accomplish something quickly and be proud of your effort. 
4. Create an Outline - organize all of your information and the structure of your arguments before you start the writing process. 
5. Start writing in the middle of your paper - start by writing down any idea or argument that is most appealing to you. 
6. Ask a friend to keep you accountable - Decide on a date for your first draft, second draft, and final draft. Tell these  dates to a friend as ask that friend to keep you accountable. 

The Middle: Overcoming Writing Challenges

1. Distracted? - Find a more quiet location to work. Put your phone in another room. 
2. Doubting your abilities? - Talk to a friend you can help you see your best skills
3. Laking Motivation? - Go for a walk outside. Tell a friend what you think is most exciting about your project. Spend five minutes imagining what it will feel like when this project is finished.
4. Tired? - Take a nap. Sleep is extremely important. You will be able to work much better once you've have slept well. Try reducing your caffeine consumption as caffeine reduces the quality of sleep. 
5. Time Management - Set goals for each phase of your writing project and ask a friend of a tutor at the writing center to help you be accountable. 

The End: How to know if your paper is ready to submit?

1. Treat yourself like an athlete engaged in an endurance event - give yourself exercises (write for 30 minutes, reread three pages that you've already written) and then take a break. 
2. Motivate yourself in ways that work for you
3. Employ your inner drill sergeant - Tell yourself, "I am going to finish this project today. No excuses." 
4. Review your professor's requirements and make sure you have addressed each of them. 
5. Ask a friend to read your work and give suggestions. 
6. Leave your writing project for two days and then come back to it - How do you feel about your writing after taking a break? 
7. Do a final grammar and spelling check - use AI programs, such as Grammarly if you need help. 

Counseling

If, at any time, you think you need help, feel free to set up an appointment with a writing tutor through our SZMT system. 

Recommendation: Writing Guide

Kruse, Otto (2007): Keine Angst vor dem leeren Blatt ohne Schreibblockaden durchs Studium. Frankfurt, M; New York, NY: Campus-Verl.

Sources

Flower, Linda S./ Hayes, John R. (1980): The Dynamics of Composing. Making Plans and Juggling Constraints. In: Gregg, Lee W./ Steinberg, Erwin R. (eds.): Cognitive Processes in Writing. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum, 31-50

Knorr, Dagmar (2016): Modell „Phasen und Handlungen akademischer Textproduktion“. Eine Visualisierung zur Beschreibung von Textproduktionsprojekten. In: Ballweg, Sandra (Hrsg.): Schreibzentrumsarbeit: Theorie, Empirie, Praxis. Frankfurt/Main u. a.: Lang [Wissen – Kompetenz – Text; 11], 251–273

Revision Phase

As soon as the first word is written, you can read and edit it. In the digital age, editing is both a blessing and a curse, because letters, words and texts are fluid and fleeting as long as they are available electronically.

Changes can be made quickly and easily. That is an advantage. Because the document always looks "clean". (If you activate the "Track changes" option, you can make your own editing traces partially visible). You can edit the raw version of your text.

Changes can be made quickly and easily. This is a disadvantage because a text is never "finished". There is always the possibility of tweaking it, adding to it, smoothing it out, changing it.  It therefore takes courage (or reaching the deadline) to consider a text as "finished" and "ready for submission". 

The role of feedback in the revision phase

Anyone who works long and hard on a text project lacks distance from it. This is completely normal because we "immerse" ourselves in the text work. The problem with this is that we are then often no longer able to take an outside perspective in order to test the effect on readers. This is why it is helpful - especially for term papers - to show the text to other people and get feedback. You can ask your reader to provide your feedback on specific topics, such as argumentation or flow. 

If you want feedback on the argumentation of a text, you should be prepared to make structural changes. This is usually time-consuming and often requires further thought and time. Feedback on argumentation is therefore helpful in situations where text is already available but you still have time (and the energy) to make changes.

Asking for feedback on clarity can be divided into two types of clarity. Experienced feedback providers distinguish between two forms of clarity: clarity at the local level usually means the word, sentence or paragraph level. You can usually edit such comments relatively quickly and easily. However, clarity can also refer to the text as a while. In this case, you will receive feedback, which usually results in more time-consuming editing.

The desire for linguistic feedback, i.e. proofreading spelling and punctuation, is understandable and sensible. To avoid putting unnecessary strain on your feedback providers, you should correct your text yourself as much as possible. Here are a few tips:

How your word processor can support you:

• Select the correct language setting for the spelling/grammar checker in your word processor. You can set your own language settings for individual paragraphs or words. (You can find instructions for this on the Internet.
• Train your word processor's dictionary. Technical terms are often not listed. Enter them (if they are spelled correctly) into the dictionary to reduce the number of words marked as "incorrect".
• If necessary, also use checking programs such as Duden-Mentor or Grammarly.

To self-correct your text, create distance from it:

• A temporal distance (at least 24 hours) reduces the emotional attitude towards the text. You create distance and can see your text with different eyes.
• Give your text a different look by reformatting it, i.e. changing the font and/or font size. 
• Print your paper
• Read your text aloud. 

Completion Phase

The completion phase should be scheduled in the time schedule. For a thesis that needs to be bound, at least 3 days should be planned, ideally a week. This is because the completion phase is exclusively dedicated to the final touches and proofreading.

Checklist

1) General

• Are all formalities fulfilled?
• Is the cover sheet formatted? Are all necessary details included (name, matriculation number, address, reviewer/seminar leader, title of the paper, seminar if applicable)?
• Are all citations in the text accompanied by page numbers?
• Are all necessary indexes present? Table of contents and bibliography are obligatory. In many cases, a list of figures and abbreviations is also required. Tip: Use the functions of writing software to automatically create these lists.
• Is the text checked for correct spelling and punctuation? The use of spelling and grammar checkers is mandatory. However, since these systems do not detect everything, it is helpful to have a trusted person proofread the text again. Note: The Writing Center does NOT provide this service.
• Are all headings, quotes, etc. formatted consistently? Tip: Use paragraph formatting.

2) Consistency checks

Tip: Consistency checks are made much easier by working with a reference management program!

• Is the bibliography complete? Check whether all references in the text are also in the bibliography and whether only the information referenced in the text is also in the bibliography.
• Are the sources in the text all structured according to the same scheme? For example, all page references with "p." or without, but not once like this and once like that?
• Do the references in the bibliography all follow the same convention?

 Attention! There is not ONE correct form. Some institutes specify how the bibliography must be structured, others limit themselves to the specification that the bibliography should be "consistent". If there are guidelines, you should follow them. If not, it is sufficient to decide on a convention and to follow its principles consistently. If you use a reference management program, you can choose between different output styles. The references in the text are then automatically output according to the selection. 

3) Finetuning

• Scan your document for duplicate gaps and replace them with a single one.
• In the course of text production, many writers develop a preference for certain words or phrases that are not technical words. These are often filler words that do not contribute to the argument (e.g., "also"). If you encounter a word or phrase several times on a page in your text, you can check whether they can be replaced by other words/phrases or deleted. The latter is often possible when using filler words without changing the line of argument. This revision step contributes a lot to how smoothly your text reads. Remember: you are writing for a reader.

Examination Phase

The examination phase is a time of waiting. There is nothing more you can do. The longer the phase lasts, the greater the uncertainty and doubt can become. There is only one option here: endure. If you have the opportunity, do yourself a favor and don't look at your text again during this time. Due to the distance in time, you will notice things that you might have wanted to do differently...

If your text is one that needs to be defended, use this time to prepare your presentation. 

Tip: The defense is called a defense because that's what it's all about. You will be tested on whether you stand by your text. Expect questions that will make you feel insecure. Your approach may be questioned or an alternative presentation of your results may be suggested. Then explain why your approach was good and why you arrived at your results in the way you did. You can also discuss what future research - based on your findings - could achieve. 

Publication Phase

If you are writing your PHD thesis are trying to publish your research, your writing process is not completely over until your results have been published and made publicly available.

Tips

The Medien- und Informationszentrum supports you in choosing literature management programs and offers consultation hours. You can attend short introductions to Citavi, Mendeley and Zotero and/or use self-study materials.

Meurer, Peter, & Schluchter, Manfred. (2017). Wissenschaftliches Arbeiten mit Citavi 6. Hinweise zum Schreiben wissenschaftlicher Arbeiten mit der Software »Citavi.